Monthly Archives: April 2018

Crossroads: where data protection and freedom of information intersect

The laws relating to freedom of information and those relating to privacy and data protection often come into conflict with one another.  One issue which arises often for those who are responsible for answering freedom of information requests is whether or not to disclose personal data of third parties which is caught up within the information that has been requested.  This is an area that has been the subject of much litigation both under the Scottish and UK FOI laws; indeed, cases have gone from Scotland all the way to the UK Supreme Court (this might be because there are fewer levels of appeal to go through in Scotland and until very recently Scottish litigants did not need the permission of the Court of Session or the Supreme Court to take an appeal there).

One area which is perhaps the most contentious of all is where the personal data in question relations to civil servants.  The generally accepted position has been that in most cases the personal data of junior civil servants will be redacted while personal data relating to senior civil servants is more likley to be disclosed.  This position, however, is one that has never really had any scrutiny from the superior courts; that is until now.  On 6th April the Upper Tribunal (Administrative Appeals Chamber) made its decision in Cox v Information Commissioner and Home Office [2018] UKUT 119 (AAC).  Judge Wikeley records that to the best of his knowledge Cox was “the first occasion on which the Upper Tribunal has had to consider in any depth the issue of the principles governing the disclosure of the names of individual civil servants in response to a request under FOIA.” [32]

In this appeal the Appellant, Mr Cox, is concerned with the development of Government policy and its application in relation to migration from the Horn of Africa.  The Appellant made a request for information to the Home Office pursuant to his right of access to information within the Freedom of Information Act 2000.  His request for information sought details concerning meetings between civil servants from the Home Office and government officials from countries within the region.  In particular, the Appellant sought the dates of the meetings, names of all those who were present at the meetings and also the notes of such meetings.

There were two issues in the appeal, but this blog post only focuses on the first of those issues; that being the disclosure of the names of civil servants.  The Home Office had refused to disclose the names of three civil servants who had formed part of the UK’s delegation to Eritrea in December 2014 (they were referred to as J, L and N during the course of the proceedings before the First-Tier Tribunal).  The Information Commissioner had agreed with the Home Office and found that the Home Office had complied with the requirements of the Freedom of Information Act 2000 in withholding the names under section 40(2) of the Act.

The UK and Scottish provisions in respect of personal data are the same (although, in the Scottish Act the exemption can be found within section 38 of the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002).  Personal data of third parties is exempt under FOI law where to release the personal data would amount to a breach of the data protection principles.  When third party personal data is involved in an FOI request the sixth condition in Schedule 2 to the Data Protection Act 1998 comes into play.  This condition requires there to be a balancing exercise undertaken between the rights of the data subject and the rights of the person who is seeking disclosure of the personal data.

In South Lanarkshire Council v Scottish Information Commissioner [2013] UKSC 55 (a case which involved the disclosure of pay scales within the Council in connection with matters concerning equal pay), Lady Hale observed that the sixth condition in Schedule 2 required that three discrete questions are asked and answered:

  1. Is the data controller or the third party or parties who whom the data are disclosed pursuing a legitimate interest of interests?
  2. Is the processing involved necessary for the purpose of those interests?
  3. Is the processing unwarranted in the circumstances by reason of prejudice to the rights and freedoms or legitimate interests of the data subject?

The first hurdle for a requester to get across in seeking to have third party personal data, including the names of civil servants, disclosed under FOI laws is that they are pursuing a legitimate interest. It is clear from the authorities that there is no inherent interest in the release of civil servants’ names: “[t]here is no reason why the general transparency values underpinning FOIA should automatically create a legitimate interest in disclosure under the DPA.” [42] (see also Department of Health v Information Commissioner and Lewis [2017] EWCA Civ 374)  What needs to be assessed is “the legitimate interests of the individual requester, and not the more abstract legitimate interests of the public at large”. [43]  If the decision-maker, whether that be the public authority, commissioner or courts/tribunals, is not satisfied that there is no legitimate interest being pursued by the requester, then they do not need to go any further as the sixth condition would not apply (see the comments of Judge Jacobs giving the decision of the Upper Tribunal in Information Commissioner v (1) CF and (2) Nursing and Midwifery Council [2015] UKUT 449 (AAC) at paragraph 19 in particular).

When the personal data exemptions are in play they represent an exception to the general proposition that the FOI process is applicant blind (i.e. that the applicant doesn’t play a part in determining whether information ought to be released or not); other exceptions include, for example, the vexatious provisions and the aggregation provisions within the appropriate limit regulations.  Judge Jacobs, at paragraph 30, in IC v CF & NMC (above) said that it “is impossible to apply paragraph 6(1) without having regard to the identity of the applicant, the interest pursued by the request and the extent to which information is already potentially available to the public.”

Each case will, of course, turn on its own facts.  Many of the factors which go into determining whether third party personal data ought to be released is specific to the facts and context. However, I suggest that we can draw some clear principles from the case law to date:

  1. When determining the legitimate interests part of the test; there is no public benefit legitimate interest – reference must be had to who is making the request and why they are making the request;
  2. The balancing exercise required to be undertaken when applying condition 6 of Schedule 2 is not the same balancing exercise that is completed when undertaking the public interest balancing exercise;
  3. FOI rights do not take precedence over privacy and data protection rights;
  4. When it comes to the personal data of civil servants; there is no hard rule that the personal data (including names) of senior civil servants will always be disclosed and likewise there is no hard rule that the personal data (including names) of junior civil servants will always be redacted; it is a decision that is both fact-specific and context-specific

The decision in Cox is of course one that is not binding on the Scottish Information Commissioner, but it is binding upon the First-Tier Tribunal and the UK Information Commissioner.  It essentially approves of the way in which public authorities and both commissioners have been handling these issues to date and so we’re unlikely to see anything change as to how the tension between FOI laws and the data protection laws is resolved.

The Data Protection Bill will (when it is finally passed and eneacted) amend both the Freedom of Information Act 2000 and the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002 to reflect the General Data Protection Regulation; the provisions look a bit unwieldy, but in reality they are unlikely to change very little in terms of day-to-day practice.

Alistair Sloan

If you require advice and assistance on any aspect of freedom of information or data protection and privacy law then you can contact Alistair Sloan on 0141 229 0880; alternatively you can contact him directly be E-mail.  We have a Twitter account dedicated to information law issues , which you are welcome to follow.

The Information Commissioner’s power to compel information

The Information Commissioner is presently undertaking an investigation into the possible unlawful use of personal data, in particular, data analytics, by political parties and political campaigning organisations.  The most high profile activity that the Commissioner has undertaken in respect of that investigation has to be the obtaining and execution of a warrant to search the offices of Cambridge Analytica.  As part of that investigation it has been reported that a number of persons and organisations involved in politics have been served with Information Notices by the Information Commissioner, including the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP), Leave.EU and Arron Banks.

An Information Notice is a formal investigative tool which the Information Commissioner can use in order to gather information.  Her power to issue such notices, in respect of the processing of personal data, is to be found in section 43 of the Data Protection Act 1998.  There are two circumstances in which the Commissioner can issue an Information Notice:  (1) when conducting an assessment pursuant to section 42 of the Data Protection Act 1998; and (2) where the Commissioner reasonably requires any information for the purpose of determining whether the data controller has complied or is complying with the data protection principles.  Broadly speaking this means that the Commissioner can issue an Information Notice either when her office is conducting an investigation at the request of a data subject or an investigation undertaken by her office which has been instigated by the Commissioner herself.

An Information Notice is simply a document which requires the data controller concerned to provide the Commissioner with information specified within the notice relating to the section 42 request or the controller’s compliance with the data protection principles.  However, its simplicity obscures its formality.  The issuing of an Information Notice is a formal step, and is a serious one for the recipient of the notice.  There is an automatic right of appeal against the notice or any part of the notice to the First-Tier Tribunal (Information Rights).  The right of appeal exists precisely because of its formality and the consequences for not complying with the notice.  It has been reported that UKIP has appealed the Information Notice served on it to the Tribunal.

An Information Notice is more than a polite request for information; it is a formal demand for information which is baked up by the threat of sanctions.  It is a criminal offence to fail to comply with an information notice which can result, if convicted, in a fine.  Furthermore, it is a criminal offence  to (i) make a statement in response to an information notice which is known to be false; or (ii) recklessly make a false statement in response to an information notice.

When serving an Information Notice, the Commissioner can specify or describe the information required by her or can be broader and instead specify or describe categories of information that she requires from the data controller.  There are some restrictions though on the information that the Commissioner can require a data controller to provide her with.  A data controller is not required to furnish the Commissioner with (a) “any communication between a professional legal adviser and his client in connection with the giving of legal advice to the client with respect to the person’s obligations, liabilities or rights under [the Data Protection Act 1998]”, or (b) “any communication between a professional legal adviser and his client, or between such an adviser or his client and any other person, made in connection with or in contemplation of proceedings under or arising out of [the Data Protection Act 1998] (including proceedings before the Tribunal) and for the purposes of such proceedings.”

A data controller can also refuse to provide information which would reveal evidence of the commission of any offence.  However, there are some exceptions to this general exception; if the offence is an offence under the Data Protection Act 1998 or offences under certain statutory provisions concerning the giving of false evidence, then the data controller may still be required to provide the Commissioner with that information.

The serving of an Information Notice on a data controller is a significant step by the Commissioner and it is one that data controllers should not take lightly.  The consequences for failing to comply with the notice or for deliberately or recklessly misleading the Commissioner through the provision of false information can see the data controller facing criminal charges.  The Notice can be challenged through the First-Tier Tribunal (Information Rights) which could see part or all of the notice reduced/quashed.  The Data Protection Bill contains provisions in relation to Information Notices which are for the most part identical to the powers found within the Data Protection Act 1998 and so the Commissioner will continue to possess this potentially powerful took once the GDPR becomes a reality next month (subject, of course, to the Data Protection Bill completing is passage through parliament and receiving Royal Assent in time).

Alistair Sloan

If you are facing an investigation by the Information Commissioner in respect of alleged failures to comply with privacy and data protection law, or if you require advice on any other information law matter you can contact Alistair Sloan on 0141 229 0880.  Alternatively you can contact him directly by E-mail.  We also have a dedicated information law twitter account which you can follow.

NT1 and NT2: Forgetting past misdemeanors

The so-called ‘right to be forgotten’ (hereafter “RTBF”) is an often trumpeted aspect of the GDPR; it is an important right, but one that is rather more restricted in nature than is understood.  The RTBF is not a new right within he GDPR, but has foundation within current data protection law and practice.  On 13 March 2014, the Grand Chamber of the Court of Justice of the European Union gave its judgment in Google Spain SL, Google Inc. v Agencia Española de Protección de Datos, Mario Costeja González (“Google Spain”), which it has popularly been said created a ‘right to be forgotten’.  The court did not, in fact, grant a right to be forgotten; instead, the court required search engines, such as Google, to consider requests from individuals to have links to webpages concerning them de-listed from Google search results in certain circumstances.

Fast forward to 13th April 2018, a little over 4 years since the decision in Google Spain, Mr Justice Warby handed down his judgment in NT1 & NT 2 v Google LLC [2018] EWHC 799 (QB); cases which both concerned the RTBF.  NT1 and NT2 are both businessmen who were convicted of criminal offences.  In respect of NT1, he was involved in a controversial property business in the late 1980s and the early 1990s (while in his thirties).  In the late 1990s, while he was in his 40s, NT1 was prosecuted and convicted, after trial, of a criminal conspiracy connected with those business activities.  He was sentenced to a period of imprisonment and his conviction has since become “spent”.  In addition to the matters for which he was convicted, he was also accused of, but never prosecuted for, a separate conspiracy connected with the same business.  Some of the businesses former staff were eventually convicted in relation to that separate conspiracy.  There was media reporting of these and related matters at that time.  Links to that reporting are made available by Google in its search results.   On 28 June 2014, not long after the CJEU’s decision in Google Spain, NT1 made a de-listing request to Google in respect of six links.  Google agreed to block one link, but not the other 5.  Google stood by its position when NT 1 asked for them to reconsider their decision.  In January 2015, a second de-listing request was made by NT1, this time through his solicitors. Google replied to that de-listing enquiry in April 2015, refusing it.

NT2’s case is quite separate from that of NT1; the two claims were tried separately, but were heard one after the other and involved the same judge and the same representation.  NT2’s case has some similarity in terms of its facts and it raises similar issues of principle to that of NT1.  While in his 40s and sometime in the early 21st century, NT2 was involved in a controversial business which experienced public opposition in relation to its environmental practices.  NT2 pleaded guilty to two charges of conspiracy in connection with that business.  This was “rather more than ten years ago” [para 7].  NT2 received a short prison sentence and spent six weeks in custody before being released; his conviction also became spent.  On 14 April 2015, NT2 made a de-listing request to Google in respect of 8 links.  Google declined to de-list any of the links.

Ultimately, NT2 was successful in obtaining orders requiring Google to de-list while NT1 was unsuccessful.

Journalism, literature and art exemption

Google had, in its defence to these claims, sought to place reliance upon the exemption in section 32 of the Data Protection Act 1998, which relates to “journalism, literature and art”.  Warby J deals with this aspect of Google’s defence to the claims by the claimants in paragraphs 95-102 of the judgment.  Warby J ultimately rejected Google’s reliance upon section 32 holding that the exemption did not apply in the first place; but even if it did, Google would have failed to meet the part of the test which is contained in section 32(1)(b).  Warby J accepted that the EU law concept of journalism was a broad and elastic one which went beyond simply the activities of media undertakings and incorporates other activities which have as their aim the disclosure to the public of information, opinions and ideas. However, Warby J concluded that “the concept [of journalism] is not so elastic that it can be stretched to embrace every activity that has to do with conveying information or opinions. To label all such activity as “journalism” would be to elide the concept of journalism with that of communication.”

In Google Spain the CJEU was sceptical as to whether the exemption in Article 9 of the Directive (which is implemented through section 32 of the Data Protection Act 1998) would apply to an internet search engine such as Google.  Warby J noted that this observation by the CJEU was not integral to its decision in Google Spain; however, concluded that “it is true”.  Internet Search Engines do not, in the view of Wraby J, process personal data “only” for the purposes of journalism, literature or art.

In considering section 32 of the Data Protection Act 1998 Warby J concluded that there is a subjective and an objective element to each of section 32(1)(b) and (c).  In relation to section 32(1)(b) Warby J concluded that the data controller had to have a subjective belief that the publication of the personal data in question would be in the public interest and this belief must be objectively reasonable.  In respect of section 32(1)(c), Warby J considered that the data controller must prove that it had a subjective belief that compliance with the data protection principle(s) engaged would be incompatible with the special purpose and that belief must be one which is objectively reasonable.

Warby J explained in his judgment that if he was wrong in his conclusion that section 32 was not even engaged in this case, that he would have still rejected Google’s reliance upon it concluding that Google would have failed when it came to considering the test in section 32(1)(b).  There was no evidence, Warby J concluded, that “anyone at Google ever gave consideration to the public interest in continued publication of the URLs complained of, at any time before NT1 complained” [para 102]

Schedule 3 of the Data Protection Act 1998

Clearly a great deal of the personal data at issue in these claims, being personal data relating to criminal convictions, is sensitive personal data (see section 2 of the Data Protection Act 1998).  In order for processing of sensitive personal data to be in compliance with the first data protection principle, which requires personal data to be processed fairly and lawfully, the data controller must be able to rely upon one of the conditions in Schedule 3 to the Data Protection Act 1998 (in addition to one of the Schedule 2 conditions).  This is an area where Google had a great deal of difficulty.

Warby J rejected most of the Schedule 3 grounds that Google sought reliance upon (see paras 107-109).  However, in paragraph 110 of his decision, Warby J, decides that condition 5 in Schedule 3 was satisfied: “that “the information contained in the personal data has been made public as a result of steps deliberately taken by the data subject.” In reaching this conclusion, Warby J relies upon the decision of Stephens J in Townsend v Google Inc [2017] NIQB 81.  In Townsend, Stephens J concluded that as a consequence of the principle of open justice, when an offender commits an offence, even in private, he deliberately makes that information public (see para 65 of Townsend).  In NT1 and NT2, Counsel for the Claimants, Hugh Tomlinson QC, takes issue with the conclusions of Stephen J and Counsel’s arguments are set out briefly by Warby J towards the end of paragraph 110.  Warby J concludes that, in his view, that the reasoning of Mr. Tomlinson was not sound.

I must confess that I have a great deal of difficulty with the reasoning of Warby J and Stephens J on this point.  I struggle to see how the commission of an offence by an individual amounts to them taking positive steps to make the information public.  The conclusions of Warby J and Stephens J do not seem to me to fit with the statutory language in the Data Protection Act 1998 nor the language of the Directive which it implements.  Warby J considered that the language in Article 8.2(e) of the Data Protection Directive is “obscure”.  It seems to me that the language of the Directive is the complete antitheses of “obscure” and that section 32 does not adequately implement the requirements of the Directive in this regard.  The only UK jurisdiction yet to grapple with this issue is Scotland.  Neither the Northern Irish nor the English and Welsh court decisions are from appellate level courts.  For the time being we have two first instance courts in two jurisdictions reaching the same conclusion; that will undoubtedly be considered somewhat persuasive by other first instance judges.

The balancing exercise

The court in Google Spain required a balancing exercise to take place between the rights within the European Convention on Human Rights to a private and family life (Article 8) and freedom of expression (Article 10).  Following Google Spain the ‘Article 29 Working Party’ (soon to become the European Data Protection Board) issued guidance on the Google Spain decision.  These guidelines provide helpful assistance, but do not prescribe the factors which are to be taken into consideration; it is acceptable to go beyond the factors in the guidance [para 135].

In respect of NT1, Warby J attached some weight to the conduct of the Claimant post-conviction; in particular, NT1 had caused to be published about him on the internet (by a reputation management company known in the judgment by the fictitious name of ‘cleanup’) misleading statements about his character and integrity:  NT1 had been convicted of a substantial offence of dishonesty and had received a substantial prison sentence for that.  This can be contrasted with NT2 who had not been convicted of an offence of dishonesty, had entered a plea of guilty and had shown remorse.

The contrast is an interesting one because while each case will inevitably turn on its own facts, it shows the kind of issues that the court is likely to take into consideration when balancing the competing Article 8 and 10 rights.

Interaction between the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act and the Data Protection Act 1998

The Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 (“ROA”) differs in Scotland from what is in force in England and Wales; of course, these claims deal with the ROA as it applies in England and Wales.  The differences in the substance of the Act do not, however, affect the principles which are in play when looking at the interaction between the ROA and data protection law.

The ROA creates a, somewhat limited, right to rehabilitation and Warby J concluded that this right to rehabilitation is an aspect of privacy law.  Warby J concluded that “[t]he rights and interests protected include the right to reputation, and the right to respect for family life and private life, including unhindered social interaction with others.” Furthermore, Warby J concluded that “[u]pholding the right [to rehabilitation] also tends to support a public or societal interest in the rehabilitation of offenders.”  Importantly though, the right to rehabilitation is a qualified right.  As with most cases involving rights, the rights of the offender to rehabilitation do come into conflict with the rights of others, in particular their rights to information and freedom of expression.

As a starting point, a person who is party to legal proceedings held in public (such as the accused in a criminal trial) does not have a reasonable expectation of privacy.  However, there may well come a point in time when they can have such an expectation.  The ROA works to prevent the disclosure of certain criminal offences for which a person has been convicted after a specified period of rehabilitation.  It does not, Warby J concluded, mean that in 1974 Parliament legislated for a right to privacy or confidentiality from the point at which the offence became “spent”.

The rehabilitated offender’s right to a family and private life in respect of a spent conviction will normally be a weighty factor against further use of disclosure of that information; however, it is not a conclusive factor.  The “balancing exercise will involve an assessment of the nature and extent of any actual or prospective harm. If the use or disclosure causes, or is likely to cause, serious or substantial interference with private or family life that will tend to add weight to the case for applying the general rule.” [para 166]

Paragraph 166 of Warby J’s judgment is well-worth reading in full for anyone who is involved in balancing exercises of this nature.

At the end of the day, de-indexing (or de-listing) from internet search results does not cause the information to disappear completely.  The effect that it has is to make the information more difficult to find.  It will still be possible for a person, with sufficient determination, to discover and access the information.  In the modern day world we are used to being able to put search terms into Google (and other search engines) and have millions, if not billions, of results returned to us in a fraction of a second.  The search engines have developed algorithms which help to bring the content that is seemingly most relevant to the top of those results with the seemingly least relevant placed at the end of the long list of results.  Information is much more readily available than it was in 1974; some might argue that cases such as NT1 and NT2 simply return the position back to something which more closely resembles 1974.

It is quite probable that we will begin to see cases like NT1 and NT2 arise more frequently.  The qualified right to erasure within the GDPR has attracted a lot of attention and individuals are certainly more aware of ‘the right to be forgotten’.  The GDPR arguably doesn’t take us forward from what was determined in Google Spain, but simply gives it a statutory basis as opposed to one that is derived mostly from case law.  The qualified right to erasure within the GDPR is, as noted above, often overstated and this will inevitably, in the event that people seek to enforce it more frequently, lead to disputes between controllers and data subjects.

Alistair Sloan

Should you require advice or assistance about UK Data Protection and Privacy law then contact Alistair Sloan on 0141 229 0880.  You can also contact him by E-mail.  You can also follow our dedicated Twitter account covering all Information Law matters:  @UKInfoLaw

Data Protection/Privacy Enforcement: March 2018

Probably the most high profile piece of enforcement action taken by the Information Commissioner’s Office in March was its application for, and execution of, a warrant to enter and inspect the offices occupied by Cambridge Analytica as part of the Commissioner’s wider investigation into the use of personal data in politics.  It would seem that data protection warrants get more people excited about data protection than would ordinarily be the case. The Cambridge Analytica warrant was not the only warrant that the Commissioner obtained and executed in March; the Commissioner’s website also published details of a warrant that it executed in Clydebank (Glasgow).  This warrant was directed towards alleged breaches of the Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003 which deal with, insofar as this blog is concerned with, the rules concerning direct marketing to individuals by electronic means.

Key Points

  • Care needs to be taken when looking at sharing personal data on a controller-to-controller basis with other companies, including separate companies within the same group of companies. Data controllers need to ensure that they identify what their lawful basis for processing is, provide adequate fair processing information to data subjects in relation to such sharing of personal data and ensure that any changes to their policy in respect of data-sharing do not result in that sharing being for a purpose that is incompatible with those stated at the time of collection.
  • If you, as an individual (whether or not you are yourself a data controller), unlawfully disclose personal data to third parties then you could be liable for prosecution.

Enforcement Action published by the ICO during March 2018

WhatsApp Inc.
An undertaking was given by WhatsApp Inc. In it, WhatsApp undertook not to do a number of things; including not transferring personal data concerning users within the EU to another Facebook-controlled company on a controller-to-controller basis until the General Data Protection Regulation becomes applicable on 25th May 2018.  The undertaking was given after WhatsApp introduced new terms and conditions and a new privacy policy which affected how it processed personal data held by it; in particular, how it would now share personal data with other Facebook-controlled companies.

Prosecutions
A former housing worker was convicted at St. Albans Crown Court after he shared a confidential report identifying a potential vulnerable victim. The defendant was convicted of three charges of unlawfully obtaining disclosing personal data contrary to section 55 of the Data Protection Act 1998.  He was fined £200 for each charge and was ordered to pay £3,500 in costs.

Alistair Sloan

Should you require advice or assistance about UK Data Protection and Privacy law then contact Alistair Sloan on 0141 229 0880.  You can also contact him by E-mail.  You can also follow our dedicated Twitter account covering all Information Law matters@UKInfoLaw